The European Union’s small, balanced budget is commonly considered to be one of the most important constraints on the Union’s powers. However, the EU has always borrowed, and it is now borrowing on the scale of a large state to aid member states’ economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and to support Ukraine. This book tells the story of how the EU became a sovereign-style borrower from Jean-Monnet’s ‘American Loan’ in 1954 to the operation of the Recovery and
Resilience Facility seven decades later. Drawing on archival analysis and elite interviews, the book charts the origins and evolution of the European Commission, the European
Investment Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the European Stability Mechanism as European-level borrowers and asks how these bodies’ accountability to parliaments, auditors, citizens, and civil society groups can be improved. The EU’s evolution as a sovereign-style borrower has been driven by a combination of gradual institutional change and hard bargaining between member states with high and low borrowing costs, we find. Since the 1990s, European-level borrowing
has also been increasingly shaped by concerns over the EU’s legitimacy crisis. Borrowing is not simply a technocratic issue, but one that raises fundamental questions about what sort of polity the EU is
and how it could develop in the future.This is an open access title available under the terms of a [CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International] licence. It is free to read at Oxford Scholarship Online and offered as a free PDF download from OUP and selected open access locations.

Author Biography

Dermot Hodson is Professor of Political Economy and Digital Technologies at Loughborough University London.

David Howarth is full Professor of Political Science: European Union Studies at the University of Luxembourg. Lukas Spielberger is a Post-Doctoral Researcher at the Centre for Security, Diplomacy, and Strategy (CSDS) of the Brussels School of Governance.
Iacopo Mugnai is an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Warwick.

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